Stroke

Description

Alternative Names

Introduction

Blood Flow Blockage. The brain receives about 25% of the body's oxygen, but it cannot store it. Brain cells require a constant supply of oxygen to stay healthy and function properly. Therefore, blood needs to be supplied to the brain continuously through two main arterial systems:

• The carotid arteries come up through either side of the front of the neck. (The pulse of a carotid artery can be felt by placing the fingertips gently against either side of the neck right under the jaw.)
• The basilar artery forms at the base of the skull from the vertebral arteries, which run up along the spine, join, and come up through the rear of the neck.

The Circle of Willis is the joining area of several arteries at the bottom (inferior) side of the brain. At the Circle of Willis, the internal carotid arteries branch into smaller arteries that supply oxygenated blood to over 80% of the cerebrum.

A reduction of, or disruption in, blood flow to the brain is the primary cause of a stroke. Blockage for even a short period of time can be disastrous and cause brain damage or even death.

Click the icon to see an image of the brain.

A stroke is usually defined as two types:

• Ischemic (caused by a blockage in an artery).
• Hemorrhagic (caused by a tear in the artery's wall that produces bleeding in the brain).

The consequences of a stroke, the type of functions affected, and the severity, depend on where in the brain it has occurred and the extent of the damage.

Cell Death. In addition to oxygen cut-off to the brain, other factors are involved in the cycle of events leading to brain cell death after a stroke. The process is not altogether clear, but one hypothesis is as follows:

• When blood is cut off in the brain, proteins known as excitatory amino acids (such as glutamate and glycine) are released. These amino acids literally excite nerve cells and, when over produced, can kill them.
• These proteins open channels in the membranes that cover neurons (brain cells), allowing large amounts of calcium to flow in.
• Calcium reacts within the neurons to release harmful substances that damage cells.

Natural particles released by the body's chemical processes, called oxygen-free radicals, may also play a role in the cell damage caused by a stroke. (Some oxygen-free radicals under study are called lipid peroxides.)

Another hypothesis focuses on an enzyme called PARP:

• PARP ordinarily makes minor molecular repairs.
• Confronted with substantial injury, however, PARP over-responds and takes up a substance called ATP, the major source of energy in cells.
• The cells die.
• Within minutes of a stroke, the zone of initial cell death is surrounded by additional damaged and dying brain cells. This process can continue for hours, leading to brain damage, perhaps irreversible.

Ischemic Stroke

Ischemic strokes are by far the more common type, causing over 80% of all strokes. Ischemia means the deficiency of oxygen in vital tissues. Ischemic strokes are caused by blood clots that are usually one of three types:

• Thrombotic stroke.
• Embolic stroke.
• Lacunar stroke.

Thrombotic or Large-Artery Stroke and Atherosclerosis. The thrombotic stroke accounts for about 60% of all strokes. It usually occurs when an artery to the brain is blocked by a thrombus (blood clot) that forms as the result of atherosclerosis (commonly known as hardening of the arteries). These strokes are also sometimes referred to as large-artery strokes. The process leading to thrombotic stroke is complex and occurs over time:

• The arterial walls slowly thicken, harden, and narrow until blood flow is reduced, a condition known as stenosis.
• These now abnormal arteries become vulnerable to injury. Such injuries signal the immune system to release white blood cells (particularly those called neutrophils and macrophages) at the site. This process is the first step in the inflammatory response, which may play a significant role in the stroke.
• Macrophages literally "eat" foreign debris and become foamy cells that attach to smooth muscle cells of blood vessels causing them to build up.
• The immune system, sensing further harm, releases other factors called cytokines, which attract more white blood cells and perpetuate the whole cycle.

As these processes continue, blood flow slows. In addition, other events contribute to the coming stroke:

• The injured inner walls fail to produce enough nitric oxide, a substance critical for maintaining blood vessel elasticity. The arteries become calcified and lose elasticity.
• The arteries, now hardened and rigid, become susceptible to tearing. In this event, the thrombus (blood clot) forms.
• The blood clot then blocks the already narrowed artery and shuts off oxygen to part of the brain. A stroke occurs.

Embolic Strokes and Atrial Fibrillation. An embolic stroke is usually caused by a dislodged blood clot that has traveled through the blood vessels (an embolus) until it becomes wedged in an artery. Embolic strokes account for about 25% of all strokes and may be due to various conditions:

• In about 15% of embolic strokes, the blood clots originally form as a result of a rhythm disorder known as atrial fibrillation. This abnormal rhythm is a rapid quivering beat in the upper chambers of the heart (the atria). Because of the irregular pumping, some blood may remain in the heart chamber where it forms clots, which can then break off and travel to the brain as emboli.
• Emboli can originate from blood clots that form at the site of artificial heart valves or as a result of heart valve disorders.
• Emboli can also occur after a heart attack or in association with heart failure.
• Rarely, emboli are formed from fat particles, tumor cells, or air bubbles that travel through the blood stream.

Lacunar Strokes. Lacunar infarcts are a series of very tiny, ischemic strokes, which cause clumsiness, weakness, and emotional variability. They are actually a subtype of thrombotic stroke and constitute about 38% of this major group. In some populations, such as among Japanese, they are the most common stroke subtypes. They can also sometimes serve as warning signs for a major stroke.

Silent Brain Infarctions. Many elderly people have silent brain infarctions, which are small strokes that cause no apparent symptoms. They are detected in between 10% and 38% of elderly patients who undergo imaging tests for problems other than stroke. A 2002 study suggested that they double the risk for future stroke. They also may be major contributors to mental impairment in the elderly. Smokers and people with hypertension are at particular risk.

Transient Ischemic Attacks (TIAs)

Transient ischemic attacks (TIAs) are mini-ischemic strokes, usually caused by tiny emboli (often formed of pieces of calcium and fatty plaque) that lodge in an artery to the brain. They typically break up quickly and dissolve but they do temporarily block the supply of blood to the brain. The mental or physical disturbances resulting from TIAs generally clear up in less than a day, with nearly all symptoms resolving in less than an hour.

A transient ischemic attack is often considered to be a warning signal of an ischemic stroke, just as angina (chest pain caused by coronary artery disease) is the red flag for a heart attack. (Because of the relationship between atherosclerosis, coronary artery disease, and stroke, TIAs may also be considered to be a warning sign for a heart attack.)

However, a clear diagnosis of a TIA is often difficult. Some experts believe TIAs should actually be thought of as part of the continuum of stroke. Because blood supply is quickly restored to the brain, there is usually no residual damage as there is in a full-blown stroke, although some people experience some persistent problems. About 5% of those who experience TIAs go on to suffer a full stroke within a month, and without preventive treatment, a third will have strokes within five years.

Hemorrhagic Stroke

Over 15% of strokes occur from hemorrhage (sudden bleeding) in the brain. In a healthy brain, brain cells called neurons are protected from exposure to blood by the blood-brain barrier, a wall of tiny vessels and structural cells. In a hemorrhagic stroke, however, this barrier is broken.

Hemorrhagic strokes may be categorized by how and where they occur.

• Parenchymal, or cerebral, hemorrhage strokes. These strokes occur within the brain and account for about 10% of all strokes. They are most often the result of hypertension exerting excessive pressure on arterial walls already damaged by atherosclerosis. Heart attack patients who have been given drugs to break up blood clots or blood-thinning drugs have a slightly elevated risk of this type of stroke.
• Subarachnoid hemorrhagic strokes. This other major hemorrhagic stroke accounts for about 5% of all strokes. They occur when a blood vessel on the surface of the brain bursts, and blood leaks into the subarachnoid space, an area between the brain and the skull. They are usually caused by the rupture of an aneurysm, a weakening in the blood vessel wall, which is often an inherited trait.
• Arteriovenous malformation (AVM) is an abnormal connection between arteries and veins. If it occurs in the brain and ruptures, it can also cause a hemorrhagic stroke.

Symptoms

People at risk and partners or caretakers of people at risk for stroke should be aware of the general symptoms, and the stroke victim should get to the hospital as soon as possible after these warning signs appear. It is particularly important for people with migraines or frequent severe headaches to understand how to distinguish between their usual headaches and symptoms of stroke.

Symptoms of TIAs and Early Ischemic Stroke

The symptoms of a transient ischemic attacks (TIAs) and early ischemic stroke are similar. In the case of a TIA, however, the symptoms should resolve within 24 hours. Symptoms depend on where the injury in the brain occurs. The origin of the stroke is usually either the carotid or basilar arteries.

The build-up of plaque in the internal carotid artery may lead to narrowing and irregularity of the artery's lumen, preventing proper blood flow to the brain. More commonly, as the narrowing worsens, pieces of plaque in the internal carotid artery can break free, travel to the brain and block blood vessels that supply blood to the brain. This leads to stroke, with possible paralysis or other deficits.

Symptoms From Blockage in the Carotid Arteries. The carotid arteries stem off of the aorta (the primary artery leading from the heart) and lead up through the neck around the windpipe and on into the brain. When TIAs or stroke occur from blockage in the carotid artery, which they often do, symptoms may occur in either the retina of the eye or the cerebral hemisphere (the large top part of the brain).

They include the following:

• When oxygen to the eye is reduced, people describe the visual effect as a shade being pulled down. People may develop poor night vision. About 35% of TIAs are associated with temporary lost vision in one eye. Although such events are risk factors for future stroke, they pose a lower risk for a stroke and its complications than more widespread TIA symptoms.
• When the cerebral hemisphere is affected, a person can experience problems with speech and partial and temporary paralysis, drooping eyelid, tingling, and numbness, usually on one side of the body. The stroke victim may be unable to express thoughts verbally or to understand spoken words. If the stroke injuries are on the right side of the brain, the symptoms will develop on the left side of the body and vice versa.
• Uncommonly, patients may experience seizures.

Symptoms From Blockage in the Basilar Artery. The other major site of trouble, the basilar artery, is formed at the base of the skull from the vertebral arteries, which run up along the spine and join at the back of the head. When stroke or TIAs occur here, both hemispheres of the brain may be affected so that symptoms occur on both sides of the body. The following symptoms may develop:

• Temporarily dim, gray, blurry, or lost vision.
• Tingling or numbness in the mouth, cheeks, or gums.
• Headache, usually in the back of the head.
• Dizziness.
• Nausea and vomiting.
• Difficulty swallowing.
• Weakness in the arms and legs, sometimes causing a sudden fall.

Such strokes usually occur in the brain stem, which can have profound affects on breathing, blood pressure, heart rate and other vital functions, but does not affect thinking or language.

Speed of Symptom Onset. The speed of symptom onset of a major ischemic stroke may indicate its source:

• If the stroke is caused by a large embolus (a clot that has traveled to an artery in the brain), the onset is sudden. Headache and seizures can occur within seconds of the blockage.
• When thrombosis (a blood clot that has formed within the brain) causes the stroke, the onset usually occurs more gradually, over minutes to hours. On rare occasions it progresses over days to weeks.

Click the icon to see an image of carotid dissection.

Click the icon to see an image of stroke.

Click the icon to see an image of stroke.

Symptoms of Hemorrhagic Stroke

Cerebral Hemorrhage Symptoms. Symptoms of a cerebral, or parenchymal, hemorrhage typically begin very suddenly and evolve over several hours and include:

• Headache.
• Nausea and vomiting.
• Altered mental states.
• Seizures.

Subarachnoid Hemorrhage. When the hemorrhage is a subarachnoid type, warning signs may occur from the leaky blood vessel a few days to a month before the aneurysm fully develops and ruptures. Warning signs may include:

• Abrupt headaches.
• Nausea and vomiting.
• Sensitivity to light.
• Various neurologic abnormalities. Seizures, for example, occur in about 8% of patients.

When the aneurysm ruptures, the stroke victim may experience the following:

• A terrible headache.
• Neck stiffness.
• Vomiting.
• Altered states of consciousness.
• The eyes may become fixed in one direction or lose vision.
• Stupor, rigidity, and coma.

Risk Factors

New or recurrent strokes affect about 700,000 Americans every year. Although incidence of stroke has increased between 1988 and 1998, more people are surviving stroke, and the death rate from this condition fell by about 15% during that period. While age is the major risk factor, in general, people with stroke are likely to have more than one risk factor.

Age

Older Adults. People most at risk for stroke are older adults, particularly those with high blood pressure, who are sedentary, overweight, smoke, or have diabetes. Older age is also linked with higher rates of post-stroke dementia. In the older age groups, studies are mixed on the effects of stroke by gender.

Younger Adults. Younger people are not immune, however; about 28% of stroke victims are under 65. Strokes in younger people affect men and women equally.

Gender

In most age groups except older adults, stroke is more common in men than in women. However, it kills more women than men, regardless of ethnic groups. Women may have a higher risk for hemorrhagic strokes than men (although this risk is not consistent in all countries). It is not clear why women have a higher mortality rate from stroke. In one study comparing men and women with atherosclerosis (hardening of the arteries), the risk for stroke in women appeared to be higher with less blockage in the blood vessels. Another study also reported that women had a higher risk for fatal strokes after heart surgery. The arteries that lead to the brain may be more vulnerable to the effects of plaque build-up in women than in men.

Ethnicity

All minority groups, including Native Americans, Hispanics, and African Americans, face a significantly higher risk for stroke and stroke death than American Caucasians. The risk is also higher in Asian Americans, although some evidence reports a marked decline in incidence in this group over the past decades. The differences in risk among all groups diminish as people age.

The greatest disparity in risk occurs in young adults. Middle aged African Americans are two to three times more likely to experience a stroke than their Caucasian peers and four times more likely to die from one. (They also face a higher risk for death from heart disease.)

African Americans have a higher prevalence of diabetes and hypertension than other groups. However, studies suggest socioeconomic factors are important in these differences.

Poorer diets, higher stress levels, and lack of access to health care certainly play a role in the higher rates. Socioeconomic disparities may play a large role in the differences in mortality between all major American minority ethnic groups and Caucasian Americans.

All African Americans face discrimination, but women may be at particular risk for unequal treatment. (In one study in which female actors portrayed heart patients, African American women were 60% less likely to receive aggressive diagnostic tests than African American men or any Caucasians, even though they presented with similar symptoms.)

While African Americans comprise 13% of the US population, African Americans have comprised only 2% to 9% of subjects in most of the major research trials, and so knowledge about their specific risks is limited.

Geography

People in the Southeastern US have had the highest risk for stroke in the country for some years; those at particular risk live in North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia. This risk may be shifting westward so that high stroke rates are also occurring in the lower Mississippi valley and in Southern California. Socioeconomic differences do not fully explain these higher-risk areas.

Heart Disease and Heart Attack

Heart disease and stroke are closely tied for many reasons:

• Patients with one condition often have risk factors for the other, such as high blood pressure, atherosclerosis (hardening of the arteries), and diabetes.
• The risk of stroke is increased during surgical procedures involving the coronary arteries, including coronary bypass operations and angioplasty. Coronary bypass poses the greater risk--about 2% to 5%.
• Anti-clotting drugs used for treatment of heart disease and heart attacks slightly increase the risk for hemorrhagic stroke.
• A heart attack itself poses a high risk for stroke, which, according to a major 2002 study, is 2.5% in the first six months and 5% per year thereafter. In the study, patients with a higher risk (about 4%) for stroke within six months of a heart attack tended to be older (over age 75), African American, or to have a history of a previous stroke, atrial fibrillation, hypertension, diabetes, or peripheral artery disease. Most people at high risk have more than one of these problems.

Many of these and other heart risk factors also associated with stroke are discussed in separate discussions.

Abnormal Blood Pressure

High Blood Pressure (Hypertension). High blood pressure (known medically as hypertension) contributes to 70% of all strokes. In fact, researchers have estimated that nearly 40% of strokes could be averted by controlling blood pressure.

Two numbers are used to describe blood pressure phases and may affect stroke risk separately:

• The systolic pressure (the higher and first number) is measured as the heart contracts to pump out the blood. Evidence suggests that elevated systolic pressure poses a significant danger for heart events and stroke events when diastolic is normal, a condition called isolated systolic hypertension. The wider the spread between the systolic and diastolic measurements, the greater the danger.
• The diastolic pressure (the lower and second number) is measured as the heart relaxes to allow blood to refill the heart between beats. Abnormally higher diastolic pressure is a strong predictor of heart attack and stroke in most people with hypertension. [For more information, see the Well-Connected Report #14, High Blood Pressure.]

Hypertension is a disorder characterized by chronically high blood pressure. It must be monitored, treated and controlled by medication, lifestyle changes, or a combination of both.

Click the icon to see an image of the risks of untreated hypertension.

• Stroke from Low Blood Pressure (Hypotension). Uncommonly, blood pressure that is too low can reduce oxygen supply to the brain and cause a stroke. This can occur from a heart attack, a major bleeding episode, an overwhelming infection, or rarely, from surgical anesthesia or from overtreatment of high blood pressure.

Heart Abnormalities Causing Traveling Blood Clots (Embolisms)

Atrial Fibrillation. About one in six strokes are due to atrial fibrillation. This is a heart rhythm disorder in which the atria (the upper chambers in the heart) beat very quickly and nonrhythmically. The blood pools instead of being pumped out, increasing the risk for formation of blood clots that break loose and travel toward the brain. Atrial fibrillation, in fact, poses a six-fold increased risk for stroke and may also pose a higher risk for complications after a stroke.

Atrial fibrillation is uncommon in people under 60 years old, but about 6% of adults over 80 have this heart rhythm disorder. In this patient group, the risk for stroke may be higher or lower with the presence of other risk factors, including having heart failure, high blood pressure, diabetes, and a previous history of stroke, TIA, or rheumatic heart disease. More women than men have AF, but risk for stroke is higher in women with this condition than in men.

Patent Foramen Ovale. Patent foramen ovale (PFO) is a flap-like opening between chambers of the heart. The foramen ovale is always open during fetal development to enhance blood flow to the fetus. It then typically closes after birth when the lungs take over. However, evidence suggests that it remains open in up to 30% of adults. In such cases, blood moves backward (right to left) through this opening when pressure in the right chamber exceeds the left. Large PFOs in fact, be turn out to be a major cause of stroke, particularly in younger adults. A 2001 study suggested that stroke patients with PFO have a higher risk for a recurring stroke only if they also have atrial septal aneurysm. The process leading to blood clots and stroke in such cases are complex and not entirely clear. Treatments include anti-clotting agents and procedures for closing the opening.

Atrial Septal Aneurysm. Atrial septal aneurysm is an inborn condition in which part the atrium (one of the heart chambers) bulges out. Studies indicate that this may pose a slight risk for stroke in young people.

Note: It had been commonly believed that mitral-valve prolapse is a major cause of stroke in young people, but the connection has not been well researched. A 1999 study found no evidence that this usually mild heart abnormality has any effect on stroke.

Smoking

People who smoke a pack a day have almost two and a half times the risk for stroke as nonsmokers. Smoking increases both hemorrhagic and ischemic stroke risk. The risk for stroke may remain elevated for as long as 14 years after quitting, so the earlier one quits the better.

Diabetes and Insulin Resistance

Heart disease and stroke are the leading causes of death in people with diabetes. Diabetes is a strong risk factor for ischemic stroke, perhaps because of accompanying risk factors, such as obesity and high blood pressure. Studies have also implicated insulin resistance, which is an important disease mechanism in type 2 diabetes, as an independent factor in the development of atherosclerosis and stroke. With this condition, insulin levels are normal to high, but the body is unable to use the insulin normally to metabolize blood sugar. The body compensates by raising the level of insulin, which can, in turn, increase the risk for blood clots and reduce HDL levels (the beneficial form of cholesterol). Diabetes does not appear to increase the risk for hemorrhagic stroke. Some studies have also reported a worse outcome in patients whose blood sugar levels are high at the time of a stroke. [For more information, see the Well-Connected Report #60, Diabetes: Type 2.]

Obesity and Sedentary Lifestyles

Obesity may increase the risk for both ischemic and hemorrhagic stroke independently of other risk factors that often co-exist with excess weight, including insulin resistance and diabetes, high blood pressure, and unhealthy cholesterol level. Weight that is centered around the abdomen (the so-called apple shape) has a particularly high association with stroke, as it does for heart disease, in comparison to weight distributed around hips (pear-shape). [For more information, see the Well-Connected Report #53, Weight Control and Diet.]

Cholesterol and Other Lipids

Although an unhealthy balance of cholesterol and other lipids (fatty compounds) plays a major role in heart disease, its role in stroke is less clear. Different lipids may have different effects:

Ischemic Stroke. The effects of high total cholesterol and LDL levels on stroke are not clear. One study suggested that the risk for ischemic stroke increases when total cholesterol is above 280 mg/dl. HDL (the so-called good cholesterol) may protect against ischemic stroke (although statins have little effect on HDL).

Hemorrhagic Stroke. HDL may also reduce the risk for hemorrhagic stroke. People with overall cholesterol levels below 180 mg/dl, however, may be at risk for hemorrhagic stroke (which is bleeding in the brain), particularly if they also have high blood pressure. This is a far less common stroke, however, than ischemic stroke.

In any case, reducing cholesterol is extremely important in anyone with heart disease and abnormal lipid levels.

Genetic and Inborn Factors

Genetics may be responsible for many of the causes of stroke. Studies indicate that a family history of stroke, particularly in one's father, is a strong risk factor for stroke.

Genetics and Subarachnoid Hemorrhage. Genetic factors account for between 7% and 20% of cases of subarachnoid hemorrhage. Ruptured aneurysms that occur in such patients tend to happen at an earlier age, to be smaller, and are more apt to recur than in those without an inherited condition. A study of people who had suffered subarachnoid hemorrhages found that first-degree relatives of these stroke victims had a high lifetime risk of between 2% and 5%. Some experts recommend screening for aneurysms in people with more than one close relative who suffered a hemorrhagic stroke.

Inherited Disorders that Contribute to Stroke. Some cases of atrial fibrillation may be inherited. Genetic disorders that cause connective tissue disorders are also associated with stroke from hemorrhage; they include polycystic kidney disease, Ehlers-Danlos syndrome type IV, neurofibromatosis type 1, Marfan's syndrome, and moyamoya disease.

Specific Genetic Factors Under Investigation. Specific genetic factors are under investigation. The following are some examples:

• Inherited deficiencies in factors called protein C and S, which inhibit blood clotting, are strongly suspected of being responsible for certain cases of stroke in young adults, although one study indicated they were not significant.
• A genetic mutation in a factor V Leiden may be related to blood clotting risks.

People who have inherited a gene called apolipoprotein (Apo) E-4 may be at increased risk of stroke. This gene is also associated with Alzheimer's disease. More studies are needed.

Mental and Emotional Factors

Stress. One survey revealed that men who had a more intense response to stressful situations, such as waiting in line or problems at work, were more likely to have strokes than those who did not report such distress. In some people, prolonged or frequent mental stress causes an exaggerated increase in blood pressure. In fact, a 2001 study has linked for the first time a higher risk for stroke and elevated blood pressure during times of stress in adult Caucasian men (particularly those in lower socioeconomic groups).

Depression. Depression has also been linked to a higher risk for having a stroke and lower survival rates after one. In one 2000 study, for example, patients with severe depression had a 73% higher risk for stroke, and those with moderate depression had a 25% higher risk than average. The risk for stroke in depressed African Americans in the study was notable, 160% higher than average.

Migraine and Associated Risk Factors

Studies have found that migraine or severe headache is a risk factor for stroke in both men and women, especially before age 50. Overall, between 1.8% and 3% of ischemic strokes occur in people with a history of migraine. However, in patients under age 45, about 15% of all strokes (and 30% to 60% of strokes in young women) are associated with a history of migraines, particularly migraine with aura. Some evidence suggests that some strokes in these cases may actually be due to excessive activation of the nervous system and dehydration (e.g., from vomiting) that occurs during a severe migraine with aura. There is some weak evidence to suggest that stroke patients with a history of migraines tend to have a better outlook than other stroke patients. Interestingly, a 2001 study reported that in people who experienced migraine-related stroke, the frequency of migraines declined afterward.

The actual risk itself for migraineurs is low, however. In one study, women with migraines had a 2.7% risk of stroke, with the time of greatest risk between the ages of 45 and 65. Men with migraines had a 4.6% risk and their greatest time of risk was before age 45. In both genders, the risk diminished with age. Studies suggest specific risk factors for younger women with migraines, particularly those with auras, include taking high-estrogen oral contraceptives (OCs). (Whether progesterone-alone contraceptives carry any risk is unknown.) In migraineurs who take OCs, the risk increases with high blood pressure, smoking, or both.

Infections and Inflammation

Inflammation that occurs with various infections has been associated with stroke. A 1998 study found that patients hospitalized for stroke were three times more likely than patients without strokes to have recently been exposed to infections, usually mild ones in the respiratory tract.

Varicella Virus. Varicella zoster virus (the virus that causes chicken pox and shingles) has been associated with cerebral vasculitis, a condition in which blood vessels in the brain become inflamed. It is a very rare cause of stroke in children. The virus has also been associated with some cases of stroke in young adults.

Chlamydia Pneumonia. Some investigators suspect that some infections may produce inflammation in the arteries that can lead to stroke over time. (Similar work is underway in heart disease.) Researchers are particularly interested in Chlamydia pneumoniae, a non-bacterial organism that causes mild pneumonia in adults. Chronic infection has been linked with a higher risk for stroke and evidence of the organism has been observed in thickened inner vessel walls of the carotid arteries in some studies. Chlamydia has also been linked to heart disease.

Periodontal Disease. A number of studies now strongly support an association between periodontal disease and cardiovascular disorders. According to a major 2003 analysis, periodontal (gum) disease is associated with a 20% higher risk for ischemic stroke and heart disease. (The added risk may be even greater in adults under 65.) Recent evidence is pointing to the inflammatory response as the common element.

Peripheral Artery Disease

Peripheral artery disease (PAD) occurs when atherosclerosis affects the extremities, particularly the feet and legs. In fact, the major risk factors for heart disease and stroke are also the most important risk factors for PAD. (The occurrence of such conditions in combination with PAD often signals more severe forms of heart or circulatory disease.) [For more information see Well-Connected Report #102 Peripheral Artery Disease.]

Other Medical or Physical Conditions Associated with a Higher Risk for Stroke

A number of medical or physical conditions may contribute to the risk for stroke:

• Sleep apnea. This common disorder, in which the throat becomes obstructed during sleep, may contribute to the narrowing of the carotid artery, appearing to increase the risk for stroke three- to six-fold.
• Pregnancy. Pregnancy carries a very small risk for stroke, mostly in women with pregnancy related high blood pressure and in those with cesarean delivery. The risk appears to be higher in the postpartum (post-delivery) period, perhaps because of the sudden change in circulation and hormone levels.
• Anti-phospholipid antibodies. Nearly 40% of young people with strokes and 10% of all stroke patients have components of the immune system known as anti-phospholipid antibodies that increase the chance for blood clots.
• Sickle-cell anemia. People with sickle-cell anemia are at risk for stroke at a young age.
• Drug abuse, particularly with cocaine and increasingly methamphetamine (an amphetamine), is a major factor in the incidence of stroke in young adults.

Other Factors Associated with Stroke

Timing. Like heart attack and sudden cardiac death, stroke appears to be more common in the morning hours, perhaps due to a temporary rise in blood pressure at that time. Various studies point to a higher risk for stroke on weekends, Mondays, and holidays. The risk for hemorrhagic stroke may also be higher in the winter, particularly in older hypertensive people.

Height. Shorter people are at higher risk than taller individuals.

Homocysteine and Vitamin B Deficiencies. Abnormally high blood levels of the amino acid homocysteine, which occur with deficiencies of vitamin B6, B12, and folic acid, are strongly linked to an increased risk of coronary artery disease and stroke. Some experts believe that homocysteine is a major risk factor for stroke, second only to high blood pressure. A major 2002 study suggested that lowering homocysteine levels with folic acid would reduce the risk for heart disease by 16% and stroke by 24%.

Neck Manipulation. Some studies have reported a higher risk for stroke from injury to the carotid artery after neck manipulation by a chiropractor.

Anabolic Steroids. Steroids used for body-building increase the risk.

Prognosis

A stroke is always serious. Stroke is the third leading cause of death in the US. In 1999, 167,366 Americans died of stroke. The mortality rates are declining, however. Over 75% of patients survive a first stroke during the first year and over half survive beyond five years.

The Severity of an Ischemic Versus Hemorrhagic Stroke

People who suffer ischemic strokes have a much better chance for survival than those who experience hemorrhagic strokes. Among the ischemic stroke categories, the greatest dangers are posed by embolic strokes, followed by large-artery (thrombotic) and lacunar strokes. Hemorrhagic stroke not only destroys brain cells, but it poses other complications as well, including increased pressure on the brain or spasms in the blood vessels, both of which can be very dangerous. Studies suggest, however, that survivors of hemorrhagic stroke had a greater chance for recovering function than those who suffered ischemic stroke.

Factors that Affect Quality of Life in Survivors

In 1999 1,100,000 Americans reported limitations in daily life because of stroke. Between 50% and 70% of people recover functional independence after a stroke. However, between 15% and 30% of those who survive either an ischemic or hemorrhage stroke suffer some permanent disability. On the encouraging side, one 1998 study reported that people who survived for many years after a stroke had a chance for independent living that was about the same as for their peers who had not suffered strokes. The stroke patients even appeared to be less depressed than the comparison group.

The National Institutes of Health (NIHSS) have devised a scoring system that helps predict the severity and outcome of the stroke by scoring 11 factors (levels of consciousness, gaze, visual fields, facial movement, motor functions in the arm and leg, coordination, sensory loss, problems with language, inability to articulate, and attention). Up to 70% of patients with ischemic strokes who score less than ten have a favorable outlook after a year, while only 4% to 16% of patients do well if their score is more than 20.

Factors Affecting Recurrence

The risk for recurring stroke is highest within the first few weeks and months. The risk is about 14% in the first year and about 5% thereafter, so preventive measures should be instituted as soon as possible. Some specific risk factors for early recurrence are the following:

• Being older.
• Having evidence of blocked arteries (a history of coronary artery disease, peripheral artery disease, ischemic stroke, or TIA).
• Having had a hemorrhagic or embolic stroke.
• Being diabetic.
• Having alcoholism.
• Having valvular heart disease.
• Having atrial fibrillation.

Prevention

In 2002, the American Heart Association revised its guidelines for preventing heart disease, which include the following:

Improve Cholesterol. People with at least two risk factors and a 10-year risk for heart disease or stroke of more than 20% should aim for LDL levels of less than 100 mg/dl. Raising HDL levels is important for people at risk for stroke. Statins are now used in most cases.

Keep Blood Pressure Low. People in normal health should aim for 139/89 mm Hg or less. Patients with certain health problems, such as diabetes, should aim lower.

Exercise. Everyone in normal health should engage in at least moderate physical activity for a minimum of 30 minutes on most--if not all--days of the week.

Healthy Diet. Everyone should aim for a diet that contains a healthy balance of fruits, vegetables, grains, fish, nuts, legumes, poultry, lean meat, and low-fat dairy items. Avoid saturated fats and trans-fatty acids.

Quit Smoking. Also avoid exposure to second-hand smoke.

Maintain Weight. People should aim for a BMI index of 18.5 to 24.9. In people who are obese, reducing weight to this level can reduce the risk for stroke by 15% in men and 22% in women.

Taking Aspirin. People whose risk for heart disease within ten years is 10% or more should take a low-dose aspirin every day, unless they have medical reasons to avoid aspirin. It may also be helpful to prevent a second stroke, although it is unclear if it is helpful in preventing a first stroke, except possibly in patients with TIAs.

Control Diabetes. People with diabetes should aim for fasting blood glucose levels of less than 110 mg/dl and hemoglobin A1C of less than 7%.

Control Atrial Fibrillation. People with atrial fibrillation should use anticoagulants to reduce their risk of blood clots.

Diet and Weight Control

A healthy diet rich in fruits and vegetables and low in salt and saturated fats may significantly lower the risk for a first ischemic stroke. (The protective effects of diet on a second stroke are less clear.)

Fruits and Vegetables. Studies now suggest that individuals can protect their heart and circulation by eating plenty of fruits and vegetables. Eating such foods, according to a 2002 study, reduces blood pressure and protects against both heart attack and stroke. Important foods include most fruits (especially potassium-rich fruits including bananas, oranges, prunes, and cantaloupes) and vegetables (especially carrots, spinach, celery, alfalfa, mushrooms, lima beans, potatoes, avocados, broccoli). Vegetables, such as broccoli and kale, may be specifically protective against a first ischemic and possibly hemorrhagic stroke. Foods such as apples and tea, which are high in food chemicals called flavonoids, may also be very beneficial.

Whole Grains and Nuts. A 2000 study reported a lower incidence in stroke in women who had a high intake of whole-grain foods. Nuts may also be protective.

Calcium, Potassium, and Magnesium. Calcium, magnesium, and potassium serve as electrolytes in the body. They are important in controlling blood pressure and may also have protective effects against stroke:

Some evidence suggests that diets rich in potassium may protect against stroke by 22% to 40%, mostly by reducing blood pressure but also possibly because of other mechanisms. Low potassium levels may also increase the risk for stroke in certain people. In a 2000 study, potassium-poor diets were associated with a higher risk for stroke only in men with hypertension.

A major 1999 study reported that calcium intake is associated with a lower risk for stroke in women, which supports an earlier study reporting a lower risk for stroke in men who drank more milk.

Magnesium deficiencies may increase the risk for atrial fibrillation. No evidence yet exists, however, that taking magnesium supplements is protective.

Salt Restriction. Although the effects of salt restriction are not entirely clear, a 2002 study indicated that even a modest reduction in salt intake for more than month might reduce the risk of deaths from stroke by 14% in people with high blood pressure and 6% in people with normal blood pressure.

Fats and Oils The effects of fats and oils on stroke are complex. One study indicated that middle-aged men without heart disease who had the highest intake of monounsaturated or saturated fat (but not polyunsaturated oils) also had the lowest risk for stroke. Monounsaturated oils, obtained in olive and canola oils may have protective benefits against both heart disease and stroke. Saturated fats, found in animal products, are known risk factors for heart disease. Some studies suggest, however, that low intake of animal protein and saturated fats increases the risk of hemorrhagic stroke.

Other fat compounds that may be stroke protective are omega-3 fatty acids:

• One form called alpha-linolenic acid is found in canola oil, soybeans, and walnuts. It has particular benefits against stroke by helping to prevent the formation of blood clots.
• Omega-3 fatty acids are further categorized as docosahexaenoic (DHA) and eicosapentaneoic acids (EPA). They are found in oily fish and may be obtained in supplements. These compounds have anti-inflammatory and anti-blood clotting effects and may be significantly beneficial to the heart and reduce the risk for stroke.

Consuming fish two or three times a week, in any case, helps the heart and one study suggested that eating fish only one to three times a month protected against ischemic stroke. It should be noted that some studies have suggested that very high amounts (five or six servings weekly) of these fish can be harmful. A very high intake, for example, can increase the risk for a hemorrhagic stroke.

Vitamins

Folic Acid. The vitamin B, folate (usually in the form of folic acid) may protect against stroke. Studies have suggested that people who have higher blood levels of folate have a lower than average risk for stroke. Its primary benefit in this case appears to be to reduce levels of homocysteine, an amino acid that has been strongly linked to an increased risk of coronary artery disease, stroke, and Alzheimer's disease. A major 2002 study suggested that lowering homocysteine levels with folic acid would reduce the risk for heart disease by 16% and stroke by 24%.

Antioxidant Vitamins. The effects of antioxidant vitamins and carotenoids on stroke, dementia, or both have been studied. Studies are conflicting, however. A very important 2001 study reported no protection from stroke with vitamins A, E or beta carotene.

Caffeine Intake, Alcohol, and Smoking

Smoking. Everyone should quit smoking.

Alcohol. Mild to moderate alcohol use (one to seven drinks a week) is associated with a significantly lower risk for ischemic stroke, although not hemorrhagic stroke. Heavy alcohol use, particularly a recent history of drinking, is associated with a higher risk of both ischemic and hemorrhagic stroke.

Coffee. In healthy people with normal blood pressure, drinking a couple of cups of coffee a day is unlikely to do any harm. In fact, caffeine may have nerve-protecting properties that may help stroke survivors. Caffeine drinkers, however, might do better to choose tea, which may have beneficial nutrients, and people with existing hypertension should avoid caffeine altogether (since caffeine may increase the risk for stroke in this group).

Exercise

The benefits of exercise on stroke are less established than on heart disease, but a number of studies, including the following, suggest positive benefits:

• According to one analysis of a group of 11,000 men, those who burned between 2,000 and 3,000 calories a week (about an hour of brisk walking five days a week) cut their risk of stroke in half. Groups who burned between 1,000 and 2,000 calories or more than 3,000 calories per week also gained some protection against stroke but to a lesser degree. In the same study, exercise that involved recreation was more protective than exercise routines consisting simply of walking or climbing.

Hypertension is a disorder characterized by chronically high blood pressure. It must be monitored, treated and controlled by medication, lifestyle changes, or a combination of both.

• A 2000 study of women also found substantial protection from brisk walking or striding (rather than casual walking).

Reducing Blood Pressure

Reducing blood pressure is essential in stroke prevention. Life-style measures, such as exercise, weight loss if necessary, and healthful diets are important for everyone. Drug therapy is always recommended for people with hypertension where there is evidence that it is affecting the organs.

An important study in 2003 suggested that using low-doses of three different agents to lower pressure may reduce the risk of stroke by 63% and heart disease by half. Using low doses also reduces the risk for side effects.

Diuretics, the most effective agents for protecting against stroke, are also the least expensive. There are many brands and forms of this drug. Angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors, which include captopril (Capoten), ramipril (Altace), enalapril (Vasotec), quinapril (Accupril), are also important blood- agents, which may help prevent stroke even in high-risk patients with normal blood pressure. (Some experts believe, then, that both an ACE inhibitor and a diuretic should be given to patients with a history of stroke or TIA regardless of blood pressure.)

Other blood-pressure lowering agents that could be used in combinations are beta blockers and calcium-channel blockers.

[For more information on these agents, see the Well-Connected Report #14, High Blood Pressure.]

Statins and Raising HDL Cholesterol

Statins. HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors, commonly called statins, include as lovastatin (Mevacor), pravastatin (Pravachol), and simvastatin (Zocor). To date, statins are the most important cholesterol-lowering agents for protection against stroke and heart attack. According to a 2003 major analysis of over 200 studies, they reduce risk for heart events by 60% and stroke by 17%. Statins have nerve-protecting properties and some evidence suggests that taking statins may help stroke sufferers recover more quickly. More research is needed to confirm this.

Fibrates. Fibrates increase HDL (the good cholesterol) and reduce levels of triglycerides. They include gemfibrozil (Lopid), fenofibrate (Tricor), and bezafibrate (under investigation). In one trial, men with heart disease and low HDL levels had a 31% lower risk of ischemic stroke after taking gemfibrozil than did men who took a placebo. (These drugs may not provide the same benefits in people with higher HDL.)

[For more information on these agents, see the Well-Connected Report #23, Cholesterol, Other Lipids, and Lipoproteins.]

Influenza Vaccinations (Flu Shots)

There has been some evidence that influenza vaccinations might protect patients with a history of heart attack or heart events. A 2002 study further suggests that flu shots might protect against stroke, although possibly not in patients older than 75.

Diagnosis

In people who experience transient ischemic attacks or small strokes, it is important to determine the source of these attacks in order to prevent a major stroke. A complete blood count, chest x-ray, and electrocardiogram are usually performed. Discouragingly, a 2001 study reported that over 30% of patients with TIA who called their primary care physician were neither evaluated nor sent to the hospital within the month after a first event.

Examining the Carotid Artery. The physician usually first examines the carotid artery to determine if it is severely narrowed. If it is, the patient is in danger of a major stroke. (The thickness of the carotid artery is also proving to be a valuable indicator for long-term risks for stroke, as well as heart disease and mortality rates in general.)

The physician may use a number of approaches to determine the thickness of the artery:

• An important clue to a blocked carotid artery is a bruit. This is a whooshing sound caused by blood flow turbulence in the narrowed artery. A physician may be able to hear a bruit using a stethoscope. Occasionally, even a patient can hear the sound. The presence of a bruit, however, is not necessarily a sign of an impending stroke, nor does the absence of a bruit indicate an unblocked artery.
• Carotid ultrasound is a very valuable tool for measuring the width of the artery. At this time, ultrasound is most useful in people between the ages of 40 and 60 years. It should be noted that severely blocked carotid arteries may distort some measurements, so other tests may be required to confirm the results.

Carotid duplex is an ultrasound procedure performed to assess blood flow through the carotid artery to the brain. High-frequency sound waves are directed from a hand-held transducer probe to the area. These waves "echo" off the arterial structures and produce a 2-dimensional image on a monitor, which will make obstructions or narrowing of the arteries visible.

• Measuring blood pressure to the eye may also be important in identifying problems in the carotid artery. If blood flow to the eye is reduced, then it is likely that the carotid artery is severely narrowed.

Imaging Techniques for TIAs. A number of imaging techniques may be useful for identifying small clots or other indicators of risk in the brain.

General Guidelines for Diagnosing a Major Stroke

Identifying a Stroke Quickly. To save a patient's life, a fast diagnosis of both the presence and type of stroke is critical. Health professionals have devised different tests to help emergency workers quickly identify a person with stroke even before they reach the hospital. For example, an assessment tool called the Face, Arm, Speech Test (FAST) is proving to be highly accurate. It involves watching for the following signs:

• Face: The face is not symmetrical. The mouth droops and the patient is unable to show teeth when smiling.
• Arm: The patient is unable to lift an arm above shoulder level.
• Speech: The patient has a hard time talking clearly and following simple instructions.

In one study, emergency workers who used this test accurately identified more people with stroke than either primary care or emergency room physicians.

Determining Ischemia Versus Hemorrhagic Stroke. Once a stroke has been determined, the next important step is to determine as quickly as possible whether it is hemorrhagic or ischemic. Clot-busting drug therapies can be life-saving for ischemic stroke patients, but they are effective only in the first three hours. In addition, they cause bleeding and can be lethal if the stroke is actually caused by a hemorrhage.

A computed tomography (CT) scan is essential for identifying or ruling out hemorrhagic strokes. The goal is to complete the CT examination and obtain and interpret the results within 45 minutes of arrival at the hospital. (The ultrasound technique, transcranial duplex sonography, may be sensitive enough to differentiate between hemorrhagic and ischemic strokes if CT scans are not available.)

Certain factors may also suggest a hemorrhagic rather than ischemic stroke. They include specific symptoms (e.g., coma, vomiting, and severe headache), taking anticoagulants, very high systolic blood pressure, or high blood sugar levels in nondiabetics. However, such findings are not conclusive, and a CT scan or MRI is always needed.

Ruling Out Other Disorders. In most cases of stroke, the diagnosis is evident although a number of conditions may cause similar symptoms. These include seizures; infections that cause mental confusion; syncope (fainting); hypoglycemia; and brain tumors.

Imaging Tests Used for Stroke and Risk Factors for Stroke

Computed Tomography. A computed tomography (CT) scan is the standard imaging test for the brain. It is performed as early as possible. It is essential in ruling out hemorrhagic stroke and can accurately diagnose about 95% of hemorrhagic strokes. The full evidence of an ischemic stroke will usually not show up on a CT scan for hours to days. A CT scan, however, may be useful in identifying early signs of injury from ischemic strokes that could effect the decision to use thrombolytics (clot-busting drugs). High-speed CT scans (called helical or spiral CTs) that quickly identify ischemic strokes and the location of the blockage are now available in many centers.

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI). A standard magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scan is able to evaluate the blood vessels and the brain's circulation and determine injuries from ischemic strokes. It is not very useful in the first hours of a stroke, however, since it tends to show abnormalities that may not be significant. Advanced MRI techniques, such as diffusion- or perfusion-weighted MRIs, may be sensitive enough to identify injured areas within minutes of symptoms. MRIs cannot be used by patients with pacemakers, any metal implants, or who are claustrophobic.

Ultrasound. Ultrasound may be used in different circumstances. This imaging technique is painless and noninvasive.

• Carotid ultrasound (also called Doppler or duplex sonography) is used to determine blockage in the carotid arteries that could lead to or be causing a stroke.
• Transcranial duplex sonography is used to identify blockage in large arteries in stroke patients and to monitor the effects of thrombolytic therapy.

Cerebral Angiography. Cerebral angiography is an invasive procedure that may be used for patients with TIAs who require surgery. It can also detect aneurysms and be used to monitor thrombolytic therapy. It requires the insertion of a catheter into the groin, which is then threaded up through the arteries to the base of the carotid artery. At this point a dye is injected and x-rays, CTs, or MRI scans are used to determine the location and extent of the narrowing, or stenosis, of the artery. It should be noted that in people with TIAs the risk of stroke itself increases using this technique, particularly in elderly people with diabetes.

Other Techniques. Other imaging tests, including positron-emission tomography (PET) and single photon-emission computed tomography (SPECT), may further refine the physician's knowledge of the injuries caused by the stroke.

Heart Evaluation

Electrocardiogram (ECG). A heart evaluation using an electrocardiogram (ECG) is important in any patient with a stroke or suspected stroke. An ECG records the electrical current in the heart muscle.

Echocardiogram. An echocardiogram uses ultrasound to view the chambers and valves of the heart. It is generally useful for stroke patients to identify blood clots or risk factors for blood clots that can travel to the brain and cause stroke. There two are types:

• Transthoracic echocardiograms (TTE) view the heart through the chest. It is noninvasive and is the standard approach.
• Transesophageal echocardiogram (TEE) examines the heart using an ultrasound tube that the patient literally swallows and is passed down the throat. It is uncomfortable and requires sedation. It is typically used to obtain more accurate images of the heart if a TTE has suggested abnormalities, such as atrial fibrillation or patent foramen ovale (PFO).

Other Tests

Blood Tests. A number of blood tests may be helpful for predicting the risk for a stroke as well determining the severity and complications of an existing stroke. Some of these are investigatory.

• Specific blood tests are important to determine clotting times, to check electrolytes (potassium, calcium, sodium), and to measure factors indicating liver or kidney problems.
• Blood sugar (glucose) levels are measured. Hyperglycemia (elevated levels) may indicate a worse outcome for some strokes (although not hemorrhagic or lacunar strokes). Hypoglycemia (low levels) is a common complication of diabetes treatments and its symptoms may mimic those of a stroke.
• Blood tests showing high levels the amino acid glutamate indicate a severe stroke.

Examination of Spinal Fluid. If the CT scan is negative, but the physician still suspects a subarachnoid hemorrhagic stroke, a spinal tap may be indicated. Spinal fluid containing significant amounts of blood will usually confirm a hemorrhagic stroke.

Managing a Stroke

Until recently, the treatment of stroke was restricted to basic life support at the time of the stroke and rehabilitation later. Now, however, treatments are being used that are proving to be very beneficial when administered as soon as possible after the onset of the stroke. It is critical then to get to the hospital and be diagnosed as soon as possible. There are number of steps in the initial assessment and management of person with stroke.

Get to the Hospital Immediately

If significant symptoms appear in people at risk for stroke, calling 911 is critical (as opposed to calling the family doctor or trying to get the patient to the hospital by car). One study reported that patients who went to the emergency room in an ambulance had a much shorter delay in getting treatment than those who went on their own. Receiving treatment early is critical in reducing the damage from a stroke.

Make an Immediate Diagnosis and Evaluation of the Patient

Important diagnostic and evaluations steps are needed for the optimal treatment of a stroke patient:

Determine Whether the Stroke Is Ischemic or Hemorrhagic. As soon as the patient enters the hospital, diagnostic tests, particularly a CT scan, should be obtained to help determine whether the stroke is ischemic or hemorrhagic.

Determine The Need for Thrombolytic Agents. If the stroke is ischemic, the next step is to determine if the patient would benefit from blood clot-busting agents (called thrombolytics). The following factors are helpful in making this decision:

• Estimating the time of onset of the stroke is critical in this decision. These agents are generally not beneficial if given more three hours after onset. In general, onset is when the patient first experiences any symptoms, even minor impairment. If the patient had had a previous TIA that completely resolved before the stroke, however, onset is dated from when the more recent symptoms developed.
• Patient or the family should tell the physician if the patient has been taking any blood-thinning agents.
• The patient or family should give the physician a thorough history of any accompanying medical or physical condition and any recent event, such as surgery or injury, which might contribute to the condition.
• CT scans will indicate if there are extensive early injuries, which might affect the decision to use these drugs.

Give Supportive Treatment

The patient should receive treatment to support basic life functions and to reduce stress, pain, and agitation. The following steps are also very important:

Maintain Adequate Delivery of Oxygen. It is very important to maintain oxygen levels. In some cases, airway ventilation may be required. Supplemental oxygen may also be necessary for patients when tests suggest low blood levels of oxygen. Hyperbaric oxygen (which is oxygen administered under pressure) may help specific stroke patients, although it is not recommended for most patients, since there is some risk of significant adverse effects using this approach.

Managing Fever and Lowering Body Temperature (Hypothermia). Fever should be aggressively treated, since strong evidence suggests that its presence predicts a poorer outlook. Some evidence, in fact, suggests that hypothermia--reducing body temperature--might protect nerve cells in stroke patients. Cooling is done through special cooling blankets, ventilators, or infusion of cool fluids. Unfortunately, there are severe side effects with even moderate hypothermia (86°F, 30°C), which can include pneumonia, blood clotting disorders, heart rhythm disturbances, and others. Studies using mild hypothermia (89° to 93°F, 32° to 34 °C), however, are reporting protection from developing brain injuries. In one, it was administered with nerve-protecting agents (calcium, magnesium, glutamate, and an antioxidant) within three hours of the stroke. Compared to patients without hypothermia, brain injuries were reduced by 45% to 74%, depending on how quickly the patients were treated.

Maintain Electrolytes. Maintaining a healthy electrolyte balance (the ratio of sodium, calcium, and potassium in the body's fluids) is critical.

Managing Blood Pressure. Managing blood pressure is essential and complicated. Patients with stroke and pressures above 220 (systolic) or 120 (diastolic) should be treated. Lowering blood pressure too quickly can be dangerous, however in patients with both ischemic and hemorrhagic strokes. In general, however, experts do not advise aggressively lowering elevated pressures below 220/120 in patients unless they have other conditions, such as a heart attack, that require pressure-lowering treatments. In patients who require thrombolytic agents, blood pressure should cautiously be lowered to 185/110 mm Hg. In most cases, blood pressure declines when these patients become stabilized.

Managing Increased Brain Pressure. Hospital staff should watch carefully for increased pressure on the brain, which is a frequent complication of hemorrhagic strokes. It can also occur a few days after ischemic strokes. Early symptoms of increased brain pressure are drowsiness, confusion, lethargy, weakness, and headache. A number of medications, such as mannitol and other, may be given during a stroke to reduce pressure or the risk for it.

Keeping the top of the body higher than the lower part, such as by elevating the head of the bed, can reduce pressure in the brain and is standard practice for patients with ischemic stroke. However, this practice also lowers blood pressure in general, which may be very dangerous in patients with massive stroke. The experts in the study recommend keeping the bed level for all ischemic stroke patients. More work needs to be done to clarify this simple procedure.

Monitoring the Heart. Heart attack and arrhythmias are potential complications of ischemic stroke. Patients must be monitored using electrocardiographic tracings.

Controlling Glucose Levels. Elevated glucose (blood sugar) levels can occur with severe stroke and may be a marker of serious trouble. In general, it is advisable to lower glucose levels that are about 300 mg/dL, usually with insulin. It is not clear, however, if glucose-lowering treatments offer any advantage. Excessive lowering of glucose levels can have damaging effects on the brain. Studies are underway to determine the best approach.

Medications

An intriguing study in 2003 suggested that taking a single daily pill containing a number of heart- and circulatory protective agents could largely prevent heart attacks and stroke in nearly everyone over 55. It would contain the following:

• A statin (such as Lipitor or Zocor). Statins inhibit the liver enzyme HMG-CoA reductase, which is used in the manufacturing of cholesterol. They are the most effective drugs for the treatment of high cholesterol, and, according to a 2003 major analysis over 200 studies, they reduce risk for heart events by 60% and stroke by 17%. In addition, statins may have nerve-protecting properties that may help stroke sufferers.
• Three blood-pressure lowering agents in low doses (e.g., a thiazide diuretic, a beta blocker, and an ACE inhibitor). An important study in 2003 suggested that using low-doses of three different agents to lower pressure may reduce the risk of stroke by 63% and heart disease by half. Using low doses also reduces the risk for side effects.
• Aspirin (low-dose).
• Folic acid. Folic acid lowers levels of homocysteine, an amino acid believed to increase the risk for heart disease and stroke.

The experts in the study believed this combination would reduce ischemic heart events by 88% and stroke by 80%. Only between 1% and 2% of the population would have to withdraw because of side effects. More research on this is certainly warranted.

Thrombolytics and Other Drugs for Initial Treatment of Ischemic Stroke

Intravenous Thrombolytics. Clot-busting, or thrombolytic, drugs break up existing blood clots. They are among the important treatments for heart attacks, and are now also being used for ischemic (not hemorrhagic) stroke. Their benefits for treating stroke patients appear to be more limited than for heart attacks, however, and only a minority of stroke patients is given these agents. More needs to be learned about the risks and benefits of thrombolytics for stroke.

The standard thrombolytic drugs are recombinant tissue plasminogen activators or rt-PAs. They include alteplase (Activase and reteplase (Retavase)). Both are similar in effectiveness, although reteplase is easier to administer. Others are under investigation.

The following steps are critical before administering these agents.

• Before the thrombolytic is given, a CT scan must also first confirm that the stroke is not hemorrhagic. If the stroke is ischemic, a CT scan can also suggest if injuries are very extensive, which might affect the use of thrombolytics.
• Thrombolytics must be administered within three hours of a stroke (but not after that period) to have any effect. Unfortunately, most stroke patients arrive at the hospital more than three hours after an attack and therefore are not eligible for treatment.

Thrombolytics carry a risk for hemorrhage and so may not be warranted for patients with existing risk factors for bleeding. They should not be used in patients who are experiencing seizures. The drug may be appropriate in more patients than previously thought, however, including older people, those with a history of stroke, and those with high blood pressure. More research is needed to confirm this.

Intra-Arterial Thrombolytics. Researchers are investigating thrombolytics injected directly into an artery in the brain. Early studies suggest this approach may allow effective treatment up to six hours after a stroke and improve recovery in more patients. The risk for bleeding and hemorrhagic stroke is significantly increased, however.

Fibrin-Depleting Agents.These drugs deplete the amount of fibrinogen in blood, which in turn reduces the "stickiness" in blood. Such agents include ancrod and batroxobin (Defibrase), which are derived from the venom of poisonous snakes. Some experts believe these agents might be a possible alternative to thrombolytics. Studies suggest they may modestly reduce the risks for death and disability if given early on. As with all anti-clotting agents, there is a higher risk for hemorrhage, but it appears to be slight.

Anti-Clotting Medications for Preventing a Recurring Stroke

Medications that prevent blood from coagulating or clotting are used to prevent a recurring or second stroke. They are generally either anti-platelet agents or anticoagulants. Specific anti-clotting agents may be warranted depending on risk factors.

Anti-Platelet Agents.Typically, an anti-platelet agent--most often aspirin--is initiated within 48 hours of an ischemic stroke and continued in low doses as maintenance. Studies suggest that antiplatelet therapy can reduce the risk for a second stroke by 25%.

• Aspirin. Aspirin has some modest effect in preventing a second stroke and is recommended within 48 hours of a first stroke in doses of between 50 and 325 mg. Note, patients should not be given an aspirin until a diagnosis of ischemic or hemorrhagic stroke has been determined. Aspirin increases the risk for bleeding in patients with hemorrhagic stroke and taking it would preclude important clot-busting drugs in appropriate patients with ischemic stroke. On an ongoing basis, experts now recommend that most patients take a daily low-dose aspirin to prevent a second stroke. If patients had already taking aspirin for preventing heart disease, it is not clear it they should take if after a first stroke.
• Thienopyridines. Clopidogrel (Plavix) and ticlopidine (Ticlid) are anti-blood platelet agents known as thienopyridines. (Clopidogrel is preferred over ticlopidine because of its better safety record.) Evidence strongly suggests that clopidogrel is more protective against stroke than aspirin and appears to be as safe. It is more expensive, however. Typically, it is an option for patients who cannot tolerate or who do not respond to aspirin.
• Glycoprotein IIB/IIIa Inhibitors. Glycoprotein IIb/IIIa (GPIIb/IIIa) inhibitors are potent drugs that reduce clotting by blocking platelets (clotting factors in the blood). They are administered intravenously in the hospital and include abciximab (ReoPro, Centocor), eptifibatide (Integrilin), tirofiban (Aggrastat), lortrafiban, and lamifiban. They are being investigated along or as add-on agents to thrombolytic drugs.

Anticoagulants.Anticoagulants thin blood and may be useful under certain circumstances.

• Warfarin. The anticoagulant warfarin (Coumadin) is a potent anticoagulant and needs to be monitored carefully. Studies have been mixed on its value for protecting against future stroke. A 2001 study found no additional benefits for patients with ischemic stroke compared to aspirin. Warfarin is, however, very important in high-risk patients with atrial fibrillation. It may be useful in other situations, such as patients with patent foramen ovale (PFO), those whose stroke followed a heart attack, or in high-risk patients who do not respond to or cannot take other anti-platelet drugs.
• Heparin. Intravenous heparin, a potent anti-platelet agent, has been used for ischemic stroke since 1941. Although many physicians continue to use it, five out of six major studies have reported no clear protective benefits compared to aspirin with the use of standard heparin or any heparin-like agents. They also pose a much higher risk for hemorrhagic stroke. Experts now recommend heparins only for preventing thromboembolism in stroke patients at risk for this condition.
• Direct Thrombin Inhibitors (DTIs). Direct thrombin inhibitors are a more recent group of anti-coagulants. The first DTI hirudin, a natural substance derived from the saliva of leeches. New forms include argatroban (Novastan), bivalirudin (Angiomax), danaproid (Orgaran), lepirudin (Refludan), desirudin (Revasc), inogatran, and efegatran. Ximelagatran (Exanta) is new oral agent that is showing great promise for protection against stroke in patients with atrial fibrillation while posing a low risk for bleeding.

All anti-clotting drugs carry a risk for bleeding and a slightly increased risk for hemorrhagic stroke.

Drugs for Hemorrhagic Stroke

Calcium Channel Blockers. Early administration of calcium channel blockers, such as nimodipine (Nimotop), can improve functional outcome. One of the most common and serious dangers after a subarachnoid hemorrhagic stroke is spasm of the blood vessels near the ruptured site, which closes off oxygen to the brain. Calcium causes contraction of the smooth muscles of the blood vessels, and calcium channel blockers are drugs that relax the blood vessels. The drugs work best if it is administered within six hours of the stroke. Calcium channel blockers are not useful for ischemic stroke, although they can be used in combinations with blood pressure lowering agents to prevent them.

Antifibrinolytic Drugs. Drugs called antifibrinolytics (e.g., tranexamic acid, epsilon amino-caproic acid or an equivalent) are used to stop bleeding. They have been investigated for years for subarachnoid hemorrhagic stroke but, at this time, they do not appear to improve outlook.

Investigative Therapies to Protect or Restore Nerve Cells after a Stroke

Nerve-Protecting Agents. More than 50 medications have been studied in clinical trials aimed at slowing down or preventing the cascading process that destroys nerve cells after a stroke. Many investigative drugs are targeting the excitatory amino acids, such as glycine and glutamate, which are known to destroy nerve cells after a stroke. Although none to date have proven to have any significant benefits, some are showing promise. They include magnesium sulfate, citicoline, ebselen, piracetam, edaravone, albumin, and erythropoietin. In a 2002 study, for example, an analysis of studies using citicoline with the first 24 hours of a stroke suggested that it increased the probability of complete recovery by about 5%. Of particular interest are animal studies suggesting that sildenafil (Viagra) may have nerve-protecting properties and help recovery from a stroke.

Investigative Agents for Nerve Regeneration. It has been thought that when cells in the brain were destroyed, new ones could not grow to replace them. Scientists have now observed, however, that nerve regrowth (neurogenesis) can occur in the adult human brain. This exciting discovery opens the way for new agents that might in the future stimulate nerve growth and repair damage done by many neurologic diseases, including stroke. For example, a 2002 study reported nerve regeneration in animals whose brains were treated with the agent inosine. More research is underway.

Surgery

Carotid endarterectomy is a surgical procedure used to clean out and open up the narrowed carotid artery. It is used in patients at high risk for thrombotic ischemic strokes, which are caused by blockage in the internal carotid artery. It is also sometimes used after a stroke in certain patients. In such cases, patients have reported improvements in vision, speech, swallowing, functioning of arms and legs, and general quality of life. The studies showing such high benefits of surgery versus drug therapy were done in institutions whose surgeons are experienced with such operations.

Anyone undergoing this procedure should be sure their surgeon is experienced in recent techniques and that the medical center has complication rates of less than 3%. A 2000 study reported that older surgeons had a worse record than younger ones, possibly because they relied on residents or were less likely to adopt new procedures.

Procedure Description. The procedure generally is as follows:

• The patient is usually given general anesthesia, although it has been reported that using local anesthetic is just as safe and reduces the cost of the procedure.
• A by-pass tube is put in place to transport blood around the blocked area during the procedure.
• The surgeon scrapes away the plaque on the arterial wall.
• The artery is sewn back together and blood flow is restored.
• The patient generally stays in the hospital for about two days. There is often a slight aching in the neck for about two weeks, and the patient should refrain as much as possible from turning the head during this period.

Patients who have this procedure after a stroke are usually advised to wait six weeks. Studies are reporting, however, that having the procedure earlier does not pose greater risks.

Endarterectomy is a surgical procedure removing plaque material from the lining of an artery.

Click the icon to see an illustrated series detailing surgery for unblocking carotid arteries.

Determining Who Should Have Surgery. Evidence strongly suggests that most patients with severe stenosis (over 70% of the carotid artery is obstructed) can benefit from endarterectomy. And, it is also clear that patients with mild stenosis (less than 50% obstruction) would do better with medications--even if they have symptoms.

The benefits of endarterectomy for people with stenosis between 50% to 70% are not clear, however. The best candidates for preventive carotid endarterectomy in such cases may be those that meet all of the following conditions:

• They have symptoms that indicate blockage in the brain.
• They are male. The benefits of this procedure for women are uncertain.
• They have a history of a stroke that occurred three months earlier or less.
• They have access to a medical center in which major complications rates after endarterectomy are less than 3%.

Significant controversy surrounds the treatment of patients who have severe stenosis but who do not have symptoms. A 1995 study estimated that endarterectomy in such patients would reduce the risk for stroke from 11% to 5%. However, these patients were treated in medical centers with highly skilled staff and less experienced centers have reported higher complications and lower success rates. A 2002 study suggested that, in any case, asymptomatic patients even with blockages of well over 50% actually have a low risk for a stroke. In this small study, such patients had only a 9.3% risk for a stroke at 10 years and a 15% risk at 15. Furthermore, an important 2000 study found that only 3.5% of the strokes that occurred in such patients were due to blockage in the carotid arteries--the only condition that is benefited by carotid endarterectomy. Over half of the strokes in that study were caused by embolisms (traveling clots) or lacunar infarcts (very tiny, ischemic strokes). Some experts still believe that many asymptomatic patients are good candidates for the procedure. However, to be beneficial, the procedures should be performed only in experienced medical centers.

Complications. There is a risk of a heart attack or even stroke from the procedure. Studies have reported, in fact, that strokes occur during or immediately after the operation in up to 9% of these operations. The other overall risk of death from postoperative stroke was 2.8%. Women appear to have a significantly higher risk for postoperative stroke than men have.

Carotid Angioplasty and Stenting

Carotid angioplasty is being investigated as an alternative to carotid endarterectomy. It is based on the same principles as angiography done for heart disease.

• An extremely thin catheter tube is inserted into an artery in the groin.
• It is threaded through the circulatory system until it reaches the blocked area in the brain carotid artery.
• The physician either breaks up the clot or inflates a tiny balloon against the blood vessel walls (angioplasty).
• After temporarily inflating the balloon, the doctor typically leaves a circular wire mesh (stent) inside the vessel to keep it open.

This procedure carries a risk for an embolic stroke and other complications. At this time, it is being used in some centers as an alternative to endarterectomy in patients who cannot undergo endarterectomy. A 2002 study, however, from one center reported that complications from stents were equal to or even less than those of endarterectomy. The stent procedure is less costly than endarterectomy and some experts are hoping that it may eventually be performed more often than it is now.

Hemicraniectomy

Hemicraniectomy is surgical removal of a bone patch from the skull to relieve pressure. The bone is stored under sterile conditions and reimplanted a few months latter. It may have be a life-saving option for some patients with severe stroke that has resulted in swelling and injury to a large area in the brain. Studies are showing some benefits for high-risk patients, but more information is needed to determine specific conditions that will respond to this treatment. (In one study, for example, patients with subarachnoid hemorrhage had a poor outlook after this procedure.)

Extracranial-Intracranial Bypass

Extracranial-intracranial (EC-IC) bypass has been under investigation for decades for ischemic stroke, but has had very mixed results, some extremely negative. With this procedure a healthy artery in the scalp is rerouted to an area of the brain that was deprived of blood because of a blocked artery. This procedure is now sometimes used for patients with aneurysms. Some experts hope, however, that, in specific cases chosen via careful imaging and using the latest surgical techniques, EC-IC may prove to be helpful for some stroke patients.

Surgery for Preventing and Treating Hemorrhagic Strokes

Surgical Intervention of the Ruptured Aneurysms. In patients with subarachnoid hemorrhagic stroke, surgery to block off the aneurysm is usually recommended within a few days of the stroke. The standard procedure is to clip the aneurysm and stop bleeding. Alternative approaches are promising.

Surgical Intervention of Unruptured Aneurysms. If an unruptured aneurysm is detected, patients should discuss all options with their physician, including surgical repair. Unruptured aneurysms occur in between 1% and 8% of the general population, however, and controversy exists over when to operate and on which patients.

In general, the decision rests on the size of the aneurysm, but uncertainty still exists. For aneurysms between 10 and 25 mm, for example, in one study the risk of rupture was quite low --slightly less than 1% per year for both groups. Aneurysms over 25 mm, however, had a 6% chance of rupturing within a year. Studies have reported that in general, the risk for rupture is between .05% to 2% a year, but recent evidence suggests that the risks may be even less. In one study, even people with a history of subarachnoid hemorrhage had only a 0.5% annual risk for recurrence when aneurysms were small.

Aneurysms can often cause symptoms, however, even if they do not rupture. Patients should discuss their particular risk factors carefully with their physicians. Individuals with arteriovenous malformation, a condition caused by abnormal associations between arteries and veins, should be monitored for the development of aneurysm.

Clipping the Aneurysm. The standard surgical procedure for treating a ruptured aneurysm is to place a clip across the neck of the aneurysm, which blocks off bleeding. It is usually performed within the first three days. Getting to the aneurysm is often extremely difficult. Deep cooling of the body to stop circulation may be used to allow more time for the operation. Procedures that remove large portions of the bone in the skull are being developed to allow fast access. There is a relatively high risk for newly formed aneurysms, particularly after nine years. Patients may want to discuss follow-up angiography to detect any new aneurysms nine or ten years after the procedure.

Transcatheter Embolization for Sealing off the Aneurysm. Transcatheter embolization is a new technique for ruptured and unruptured aneurysms that is proving to be effective although is still investigative. The surgeon threads a thin tube through the artery leading to the aneurysm through which materials are passed to plug or obstruct the aneurysm. In one version of this procedure, the following occurs:

• A tiny platinum coil is inserted through the tube and positioned into the aneurysm.
• An electric charge is passed through the coil to form blood clots.
• In this case, blood clots benefit the patient by using the coil as a scaffold and sealing off the aneurysm.

A 2002 study suggested it could be attempted safely in over 95% of patients with unruptured aneurysms. In the study, the procedure eliminated the aneurysm in nearly 90% of the patients. In small trials using the coil with a ruptured aneurysm, only 3.7% of patients suffered a second stroke after seven months compared to the usual re-rupture rate of 30% to 40%.

Emergency Surgery for Hemorrhagic Strokes. Emergency surgery for a hemorrhagic stroke usually involves locating and removing large blood clots. In the past, such procedures had little effect on survival. Advances, however, are improving outcome when surgery is performed very early.

Recovery

Patients should begin all measures, including any medications and life-style changes needed to prevent another stroke. For those whose stroke was ischemic, aspirin, warfarin, or both will usually be prescribed.

Using a neurologist as the primary physician after a stroke, rather than some other specialist or primary care doctor, significantly increases the chance for survival. In any case, patients or their families should be persistent in requesting the best care possible during this important early period.

Being treated initially in a stroke unit instead of a general ward plays a strong role for better long-term quality of life. Rehabilitation services aimed at patients living at home are also very effective in improving independence. Unfortunately, Medicare cuts are making it difficult to obtain adequate rehabilitation. Patients or their families should seek patient advocates or support associations.

Reducing the Risk for Non-Neurologic Complications after a Stroke

In addition to problems brought on by neurologic damage, stroke patients are also at risk for other serious problems that reduce their chances for survival. They include the following:

• Blood clots in the legs (deep vein thrombosis).
• Pulmonary embolism (a blood clot that travels to the lungs).
• Pneumonia.
• Widespread infection.
• Heart problems.
• Urinary tract infections.

Measures should be taken to monitor and treat patients for these important problems.

Candidates for Rehabilitation

In all, 90% of stroke survivors experience varying degrees of improvement after rehabilitation. With current cost cutting, there is pressure to send elderly stroke victims directly to a nursing home rather than try rehabilitation first, although one study found that patients were three times more likely to return home from rehab units than from nursing homes. Not all patients, however, need or benefit from formal rehabilitation:

• If the stroke is severe, intensive training would not be very helpful
• If the stroke is mild, patients often improve on their own.

Positive factors that help predict good candidates for rehabilitation:

• A patient should be able to sit up for at least an hour.
• The patients should be able to learn and be aware.
• Spasticity may be a good sign, because it indicates live nerve action.
• Patients who are able to move their shoulders or fingers within the first three weeks after having a stroke are more likely to recover the use of their hands than patients who cannot perform these movements. The ability to feel light pressure on the affected hand, however, makes no difference for future hand movement.
• Family members or close friends are available to be active participants in the rehabilitation process.

Factors that might predict a poor response to rehabilitation:

• Dysphagia (the inability to swallow) is associated with a higher mortality rate, possibly because of increased risk for infection and malnutrition. (Dysphagic patients who are given nutrition using a stomach tube may improve more than those who are fed using a feeding tube inserted down through the nose.)
• Incontinence.
• The inability to recognize nonspeech sounds that occur right after a stroke.
• A poor hand grip that is still present after three weeks is an indicator of severe problems.
• Having had very severe seizures after the stroke.

Factors that do not rule out rehabilitation:

• About 30% of patients experience aphasia (an impaired ability to speak), which is particularly distressing. It is necessary to understand that this disability does not necessarily impair the ability to think.
• Although confusion is common among people who have had strokes, partial or even complete recovery is very possible.

Some Approaches to Rehabilitation

Physical therapy should be started as soon as the patient is stable, as early as two days after the stroke. Some patients will experience the fastest recovery in the first few days but many will continue to improve for about six months or longer. Because stroke affects different parts of the brain, specific approaches to managing rehabilitation vary widely among individual patients:

• Retraining muscles. One approach is based on training different muscles to replace those that have been impaired by damaged brain cells. In one small but important 2000 study, 13 stroke victims who had right-side paralysis had their non-paralyzed arm immobilized so that they were forced to use their paralyzed arm. Eleven of the patients experienced improvement in their impaired arms. The affected side of their brains also appeared to become more active. More studies are necessary. Physical exercise relating to the disability caused by the stroke is, in any case, important and may actually help repair the brain.
• Speech therapy and sign language. Intense speech therapy (about 9 hours a week for three months) after a stroke is important for recovery. (The less intense the program the less chance for success.) While professional speech therapy progresses, the patient's caregivers should use and encourage the patient in non-verbal communications, such as pantomime, facial expressions, and pen and paper. Learning and using the sign-language alphabet may be helpful both in communicating and improving small-motor dexterity.
• Biofeedback techniques combined with physical therapy. This combination has been beneficial in certain cases. Electrical stimulation of the throat, for example, may help patients with dysphagia recover their ability to swallow faster. Stimulation of the wrist and finger is also showing promise for improving motor capabilities.
• Swallowing exercise. A very promising 2002 study reported that swallowing improved when patients performed a simple exercise three times a day for six weeks. They lay flat and raised their heads three times, holding them up for one minute with a minute rest in between. This was followed by 30 consecutive head lifts.
• Attention training. Problems in attention are very common after strokes. Direct retraining teaches patients to perform specific tasks using repetitive drills in response to certain stimuli. (For example, they are told to press a buzzer each time they hear a specific number.) A variant of this approach trains patients to relearn real-life skills, such as driving, carrying on a conversation, or other daily skills. For example, in one study, small electric cars were used in a lab to teach driving.
• Occupational training. Occupational therapy is important and improves daily living activities and social participation.

Drug Therapy for Rehabilitation

Drug therapy can sometimes help relieve specific effects of stroke:

• Dantrolene (Dantrium), baclofen, and botulinum (Botox) injections have shown some promise in relieving spasticity.
• In one small study, the drug bromocriptine (Parlodel), normally used for Parkinson's disease, was helpful for patients with severe speech problems, improved their ability to pronounce multi-syllable words and to form sentences.
• Some patients experience intractable hiccups, which can be very serious. Among the drugs used for this condition are chlorpromazine or baclofen.
• Studies have reported that dextroamphetamine or methylphenidate (Ritalin), an amphetamine used in attention deficit disorder, may help patients recover speech and motor skills when combined with physical therapy.

Certain drugs commonly taken for conditions associated with stroke may actually slow recovery. They include drugs used for high blood pressure, including clonidine and prazosin, anticonvulsant drugs, the antipsychotic drug haloperidol, and the common anti-anxiety drugs benzodiazepines.

Managing the Emotional Consequences

The Emotional State of the Patients. Strong motivation with the goal of independence after rehabilitation is important for recovery. Unfortunately, depression is very common after a stroke, both as a direct and indirect result of the stroke:

• Strokes that affect the right hemisphere in the brain particularly increase the risk for depression.
• Patients can certainly become depressed by the great changes in their ability to function.
• A peculiar stroke-induced condition, known as post-stroke crying or neurologic emotionalism, is a neurologic not a psychologic disorder.

If depression is prolonged, it can impair recovery. One study showed that people who suffered strokes and became depressed were three times more likely to die within ten years than stroke victims who were not depressed. There is a significantly increased risk of suicide in patients with stroke, especially in women and those under age 60.

Antidepressants, particularly fluoxetine (Prozac) and similar so-called SSRI drugs, have been beneficial in relieving post-stroke crying and to improve recovery in general, and mood in particular, in patients who are depressed. Antidepressants may also help restore mental abilities.

Some physicians also recommend agents called tricyclic antidepressants, including amitriptyline (Elavil) and nortriptyline (Pamelor). In one 2000 study nortriptyline (Pamelor) not only improved mood but also had positive effects on mental functioning, suggesting perhaps that some dementia associated with stroke may actually be due to depression. Tricyclics may also be useful for neurologic emotionalism.

Anxiety disorder is also common and debilitating. Some research, in fact, indicates that many patients suffer from feelings identical to post-traumatic stress syndrome. The two disorders often overlap, but drug treatments for each differ and may offset the other.

It should be noted that many drugs for psychologic disorders affect the central nervous system and can actually delay rehabilitation. Skilled professional help is needed to determine the most effective and safest treatments.

The Emotional State of the Caregiver. The caregiver's emotions and responses to the patient are critical. Patients do worse when caregivers are depressed, over-protective, and not knowledgeable about the stroke. Unfortunately, in one study, over half of the caregivers themselves were depressed, particularly if the stroke victims were left with dementia or abnormal behavior.

Resources

• www.stroke.org -- National Stroke Association (800-787-6537)
• www.ninds.nih.gov -- National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (800-352-9424)
• www.naric.com -- National Rehabilitation Information Center (800?346?2742)
• www.aphasia.org -- National Aphasia Association (800-922-4622)
• www.aan.com -- American Academy of Neurology
• www.neurosurgery.org -- The American Association of Neurological Surgeons
• www.yoursurgery.com -- Surgical descriptions
• www.dynamic-living.com -- Daily living products
• www.ninds.nih.gov/doctors/NIH_Stroke_Scale.pdf -- NIH stroke scoring system
• www.strokecenter.org/trials -- Find a clinical trial on stroke